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Extraordinary Leaders (Long version)
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© 2010 by Clifford Morris
Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom and Beyond
Branton Shearer and Mike Fleetham
New York:
The Continuum International Publishing Group
December 01, 2008. pp. xiv + 130 $22.95
ISBN: 9781855393905 (paperback)
LB1025.3.S528 2008
371.102 -- dc22
most recently reviewed on Thursday, June 08, 2010.
This is the expanded and fully annotated online version of my book review of Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom and Beyond (hereafter Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers). This greater version includes extensive supplementary material that I was unable to include in the shorter version. Covering both Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) and the development of societal leadership skills (which I believe to be the main theme of this book) in a succinct book review, I had to leave out much. To access the shorter version of this review, click on the book's front cover image.
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I have divided this review into sections. After commenting briefly about the two authors, I highlight the overall structure of the book, giving additional attention to some of the current views on leadership research and broader forms of human intelligences. In the next two sections, I list the book's virtues and (a few) drawbacks. I conclude my remarks by summarizing overall. A list of notes and references close out my comments. I will now discuss, in turn, these sections.
Authors
Unlike many of their peers in cognitive psychology and education, Branton Shearer and Mike Fleetham are not publishing powerhouses, generating one book after another. Rather, both tend to be economical with their words (and our trees), publishing only when they have something extraordinary to say. And when they do, as in the case of their 2008 book, Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom and Beyond, that “something” is indeed worth listening to.
Both authors promote Howard Gardner's MI model of the human mind. Branton Shearer, an instructor at Kent State University, is a psychologist with expertise in assessment. He has spent considerable time over the past 20 years building upon MI. During this time, Shearer (1996) has developed the Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS). The MIDAS has been translated into 12 different languages and used in more than 23 countries as a research based intelligence-type tool to further the educational and career development of adults, students and teachers.
Mike Fleetham is a master teacher and educational trainer, author and consultant who specializes in the practical infusion of new teaching methods into classrooms. He was a classroom teacher for 10 years and has been an assistant head teacher in a large inner-city primary school. Two of his recently-published MI books are: Multiple Intelligences in Practice: Enhancing Self-esteem and Learning in the Classroom and Pocket PAL: Multiple Intelligences (2007).
Structure
General Overview
The time may now be ripe to review the processes required to develop smarter instructional leadership talents, skills so vital for success in politics, business (Martin, 2003, Weller, 1999), and life (Reicher, Platow, & Haslam, 2007; see also Reicher, Haslam, & Platow, 2009). And despite its importance to all, researching and writing about leadership has not been a top topic in the field of psychology (Sternberg, 2007). More importantly, this area has been regularly neglected and seriously overlooked as a fundamental classroom research topic (Graen, 2007; Hackman & Wageman, 2007).
Hence, a warm welcome to Branton Shearer and Mike Fleetham's timely publication Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom and Beyond (hereafter Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers). This is a book chock-full of pages of hands-on practical learning activities covering a fresh theme for our intelligences -- launching Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory into the leadership workplace (Visser, Ashton & Vernon, 2006). Authors Shearer and Fleetham are to be commended for their latest effort; they have done so with scholarly mastery, insight, polish and ease. I do not know of another book like this on the market.
Both authors wanted to do more than write a cookbook-type account that would focus on mundane topics such as the mechanics of conventional teaching or mainstream classroom teaching procedures. Instead, they sought a book that would help raise the quality of teaching and learning in classrooms worldwide, a guidebook for others to discover, value, and enrich and to which they could apply their unique strengths. In short, they wanted to scribe a sourcebook that might advance leadership for the 21st Century. They felt that such a state-of-the-art text did not exist. It is their hope that Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers fills that void. In my opinion, they have succeeded.
The Four Sections of the Book
The book is divided into four sections: Extra-Ordinary Teaching and Leadership, The Gift of Multiple Intelligences, Tools and Techniques for Extra-Ordinary Leadership, and Being Extra-Ordinary in the UK and US. Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers is an inspirational work because, for the first time, it places the role of societal leadership, in particular, classroom leadership, inside a MI framework. Simply stated, for 144 pages, two authors utilize MI as a meaningful tool for developing powerful leaders.
Self-Leadership In the first section, "Extra-ordinary teaching and leadership", one is introduced to the theme of the book -- using Gardner's MI hypothesis as a 'toolbox' for producing extra-ordinary leaders. This is both the book's shortest and most important section, as the reader is introduced to the the overall tone of the book -- how ordinary folks, "if given a proper plan and a modicum of effort", can become extra-ordinary leaders anywhere, be they parents, teachers, community leaders, or managers in the wider workplace. In other words, anyone has the chance to recognize and appreciate their own or others’ potential. Is there anything more important than that? The answer lies in the question. Authors Shearer and Fleetham best sum of this when they state:
Successful leadership is grounded in self-leadership. Bringing out the best in others begins with bringing out the best in one's self. Maximizing the skilful use and development of your abilities should be your standard operating procedure. It is important to understand what those gifts and abilities are and what they might eventually contribute of value to your world. A realistic appraisal of one's skills and abilities -- without exaggeration or minimization -- is essential to long-term achievement. Failure to look within with a critical yet kindly constructive eye can lead to frustration and setbacks (p. 14, italics in original).
About Multiple Intelligences This brings us to the book's second section, "The gift of multiple intelligences (MI)." Here, the authors introduce the reader to MI, specifically, how MI became Gardner's claim-to-fame model of the human mind. To better grasp how MI fits within the overall nature of human intelligence, image, for a minute, two psychological camps, polar opposite in nature -- those who believe that there exits one general intelligence, or g, and those who believe in many different independent intelligences.
Mainstream psychologists practice their wares in the g-camp, arguing that human intelligence is singular; they won't even think about alternatives. They believe that smarter people are more intelligent than others because they possess the right genes. Restated in another way, they argue that our cognitive capabilities include stronger biological underpinnings, are more genetically influenced, and that this unitary g factor accounts for a large part of the intellectual variance amongst all of us.
The other camp houses more liberal psychologists who tell us that there exists within and around all of us multiple and various forms of different kinds of minds. This opposing camp houses more moderate theorists who argue against the more hereditary stance ... arguing, as well, that it is also the environment that strongly influences gene expression. I prefer a middle ground --- our multiple smarts are composed of various cognitive capacities and that it is the combination of these outstanding abilities which constitutes our overall bundle of smarts. (2)
This same section of the book goes into some detail about Gardner's eight (8) intelligences: verbal -- linguistic, or word smart (comprehension and expression of written and oral language), logical -- mathematical, or number smart (computation, deductive and inductive reasoning), musical -- rhythmic, or music smart (pitch, melody, rhythm, texture, musical themes, harmony), visual -- spatial, or picture smart (design, color, form, perspective, balance, contrast), bodily -- kinaesthetic, or body smart (control and coordination, balance, locating self or objects in space), interpersonal -- social, or people smart (ability to inspire, instruct, or lead others and respond to their actions, emotions, motivations, and situations), intrapersonal -- introspective, or self smart (knowledge and understanding of one's strengths and weaknesses, styles, emotions, self-orientation), and naturalist -- environmental, or nature smart (noting the differences that are key to discriminating among several categories or species of objects in the natural world). (3)
Briefly summarized here for the unacquainted reader, Gardner first articulated his MI hypothesis in his (1983) famous book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, then revised and addressed their implications in Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences: Tenth anniversary edition (1993) and in Intelligence Reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century (1999). In Frames, Gardner argued against a unitary or one-dimensional view of intelligence, instead, proposing that human intelligence be viewed as multifaceted, or to cite from one of his more recent writings, "each of the intelligences is seen as a computational capacity -- the ability to process certain kinds of information in the process of solving problems or fashioning products." (Gardner, 2006). To this day, Gardner's thesis remains the same -- intelligence is not a single measurable phenomenon but a set of different potentialities (4) that vary in importance from individual to individual and from culture to culture, potentialities most of which Gardner believes have been vastly overlooked by mainstream standardized IQ-type tests.
Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers clearly falls within the Gardner framework. Authors Shearer and Fleetham (2008) argue that MI can be a powerful teaching tool that can assist anyone to appreciate and enrich their talents, whatever their age, gender, or ability. To paraphrase again the central theme of the book -- creating an understanding of MI, be it in counselling children (O'Brien & Burnett, 2000), in the business office (Martin, 2003), within the walls of higher education (Kezar, 2001), or in the wider community (Gardner, 2000; Weller, 1999) -- MI has shown to improve one's self-esteem, self-motivation and independence. In short, an understanding of MI can aid achievers and underachievers from all walks of life to realize their true potential.
On Leadership Skills In the third section of the book, "Tools and techniques for extra-ordinary leadership", authors Shearer and Fleetham identify leadership as the key to becoming an extraordinary person. They define leadership as different things to many people. For some, leadership is being able to recognize the potential in selves and others, being an accessible, innovative, practical, and resourceful person. For others, leadership is aiding people to grow cognitively and emotionally, inspiring them to follow their extra-ordinary actions. Still others perceive leadership as mainly setting examples and taking risks. Finally, various researchers interpret leadership as thinking creatively when solving various societal problems. Simply stated, the authors feel that leadership affects all of us in many different ways.
By way of background information for the unacquainted reader, for more than 2000 years, the wider public have identified leadership skills as the answer to success in politics, business, and life. Over 10,000 books have been written on this topic. While the word 'leadership' itself is only 200 years old, the term "leader" appeared as early as A.D. 1300 (Yukl, 1988). Over the years, mainstream social scientists (McCall & Lombardo, 1978; Ogawa & Bossert, 1989; & Stogdill, 1974) have emphasized the complexity of the concept of leadership and the need to understand the specific context in which it operates. A review of the research literature for this book review revealed that approaches to understanding leadership have focused on one or any combination of the following aspects: i) qualities and traits of an effective leader, ii) skills associated with being a leader, iii) importance of the situation, and iv) different styles of leadership.
For years, it was an almost a necessity for the boss of an organization to lead by telling others what to do and how to do it effectively. This was partially so since there was usually a huge knowledge gap between the leaders and workers. While there still exists some organizations functioning in this top-down or micro-management style of leadership, such a comprehension gap is virtually non-existent today.
Recent research in psychology discusses how this new view on leadership is starting to take shape. The research points to secrets of efficient leadership that radically defies conventional wisdom. Two recent writings come to mind. In The New Psychology of Leadership, authors Reicher, Platow, and Haslam (2007) counter the traditional myth that leadership is about certain traits and talent. Their new point of view on leadership suggests that if you are overseeing a group of others and you do not have the ability to listen more than you speak or direct, you will not be successful in such a role. I couldn’t agree more! Instead, it presents the concept that leadership involves placing the following three novel stances into action: knowing the group that one is a part of, then, being a part of the group, and finally, leading that group. (5)
And in a new-found book, The New Psychology of Leadership: Identity, Influence and Power, authors Reicher, Haslam, & Platow (2009) provides the reader with an innovative overview of the current understanding of leadership that has emerged in the last two decades in social and organizational psychology. Throughout, the authors discuss multiple aspects of leadership. First, they advances the argument that leadership is a group process grounded in the creation, management and control of group identity. Second, they examine leadership as the product of dynamic principles reflecting the variable and flexible nature of identity. They highlight the active role of leaders in shaping and changing social identities and inter-group relations; the distinction between power and influence and the role of legitimacy; the place of justice, fairness and consideration in binding members to the leader. Finally, the three authors view charisma and vision as the basis of effective leadership. Written in an accessible and engaging manner, this book should interest academics, practitioners and students in social and organizational psychology and any other discipline or profession interested in leadership, influence and power. It should also be of interest to members of the reading public who have an interest in these issues. (6)
Societal Stories In the final section of the book, "Being extra-ordinary in the UK and US", the reader is able to examine a series of MI narrations from an innovative approach. Everyone likes a story and this book indeed contains many! The freshness of these stories lie in the choice of the United States of America and England as the arena on which the location is set. Both countries are painted as ideal settings for comparing and contrasting MI practices. I found this section of the book to be the most personable -- being able to peek into the detailed interviews that the authors conducted with extraordinary teachers. Their interesting stories reflected one of the significant benefits of becoming an excellent teacher. While all parts of the book create a coherent whole to the development of leadership skills via the MI avenue, the four sub-sections focused on particular issues and dilemmas so often encountered when regular classroom teachers seek to discover their inner leadership qualities.
Strengths
The two (2) authors have an engaging writing style. Throughout, they use vivid and short case studies and keep a focus on how ordinary classroom teachers can aspire to develop their inner leadership skills. I believe that most readers will find the many pages of activities and suggestions quite useful. I write this as one who spent over 40 years in elementary and high schools, as a regular and special classroom teacher, and as a former school principal. More precisely, here is why I enjoyed reading and reviewing this book.
First, I believe that this book is an important read because, throughout, the authors offer the reader pages and pages of first-rate suggestions for educators, parents, and the wider community. (7) For those seeking a practical and reflective type of guidebook with numerous exercises that explore creative ways for teachers to become extra-ordinary classroom leaders, this book is a must read.
A second strong point is that the authors have written a book outlining how ordinary people can become remarkable leaders in their field. This objective has been reinforced via a series of links in http://extraordinary-teachers.wikispaces.com/, a Wikispace web site that accompanies the book. Of particularly interest to me was the Navigation sub-link entitled The Book. If the more interested reader goes here, s/he will be able to listen to a dialogue from the first author. A short note about this dialogue is in order.
In his dialogue, Shearer clearly outlines Gardner's MI; in particular, his description of how regular classroom teachers could become super classroom leaders was especially clean and tidy. I deliberately highlight the words "clean" and "tidy" as Gardner's overall concept of how all of us possess "many different kinds of minds" in not all that easy a psychological construct to digest. Thus, Shearer's elucidation of Gardner's broader forms of human intelligences is excellent! Finally, and in the same series of links but under E-Teachers UK, there are a series of audio interviews between the second author and three of his six extra-ordinary teachers. The transcripts of these interviews are also outlined in the book (see pp. 100-124). At the time of this review (February of 2009), the final four links, E-Teachers US, Using MIDAS, Leadership Tools, and Virtual Classroom were under construction. Once muscle has been added to this skeletal format, these additional links will surely add to the overall value of the book.
A third strong point is how the authors emphasize the oft-ignored importance of self-assessment, that is, enabling classroom teachers to seek out their own inner strengths and weaknesses. Such a way of self-exploration is a highly diverse phenomenon, often so difficult to assess. More to that latter point, any book purchaser can email the second author “to receive instructions for accessing [a] free online MIDAS”, (p.23). Upon completion, that person receives a three-page MIDAS Profile (pp. 83-85). The MIDAS Profile represents areas of strength and limitations as reported by [the user] at this time” (p. 83).
A fourth strength of the book is how the authors have opened up their websites to the more interested reader. Shearer's site is http://www.miresearch.org and Fleetham's site is http://www.thinkingclassroom.co.uk/ . What readers of this review should be happy to know is that both sites augment and update suggestions scattered meaningfully throughout the book.
A fifth and final plus is that this book has an added application as a guidebook. The book is aimed and priced for a mass education market and may leave many who are in the business of researching or teaching classroom leadership skills to wonder what is here for them. To repeat what I have indicated elsewhere, a forte of the book is the quality of the explanations that are provided for moving ordinary teachers to that extra-ordinary level. And, as also stated earlier, this book could provide a new context from which to motivate students into seeing how leadership skills are connected to societal success. (8)
Just because the authors hint that their text "is about taking (or taking back) control of [ones] own teaching journey and discovering (or rediscovering!) the joy of helping others to learn and grow" (p. xi), this does not mean that their book can only be used for those reasons alone. Once in a while a book that fails predominantly as a guidebook will still have significant value as a reference source for exclusive topics. This book addresses that possibility as it is a worthwhile read, from cover to cover, for all practicing classroom teachers, parents and members of the wider community.
While the editors limn their book as "a source book and as a workbook" (p. xiii), I feel that their product is of equal value as a reference guide for those who already have some basic understanding of the research associated with classroom leadership strategies but who want to address specific gaps in their research knowledge base. In the end, I would expect that this book will be read widely, especially by those who research pedagogy and teach courses in the psychology of teacher leadership.
Limitation
While I am well-aware that, as reviewer, it is my responsibility to highlight the faults of this book, I must say that the (above) strengths well overshadow any significant weaknesses. Having said that, I must also mention that I have yet to review a book that is without a blemish and, as is the case with most first editions, this book is not without its weak points. To be fair to the authors, in a publication that covers such key and current instructional strategies as this one does, it is always possible to find minor things to quibble about. But my critiques are minor. Here then are the more glaring slip-ups that I spotted.
My lone critique of this book stems from a few proofreading oversights that did escape the final editing phase. First, and located at the bottom of page 74, the reader is shown an asterisk to the left of the Universal Resource Locator (URL) www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/aims/. There is no corresponding asterisk on that page. As there is a quote from the British document Every Child Matters, at the top of the page, I believe that that the absent asterisk should have been placed there.
Two additional but major proofreading errors surfaced on page 128. Both blunders prevent the more serious reader from accessing two quite critical websites! In the Further Information section of Resources and Further Reading (see pp. 127-128), two of the three URLs are not operational. The "Branton's website: http://www.miresearch.com" link should read "Branton's website: http://www.miresearch.org" and the URL for the link "This book's wikispace: http://extraordinary-teachers.wikispace.com/" should read "This book's wikispace: http://extraordinary-teachers.wikispaces.com/". Hopefully, the next printing will have these oversights rectified. In the interim, the authors might make a notation of such inaccuracies on their websites, or request that the publisher place an erratum in the book. In the end however, such slipups do not detract from the greater worth of this book.
Conclusion
Creating Extra-Ordinary Teachers: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom and Beyond is a first-rate book, written in an accessible and engaging manner, advancing the argument that, overall, leadership represents a key factor for success, be it within the rows of classroom desks or out in the wider workplace. It expounds the reality of aspiring to being a classroom leader in a format that is easy to understand. Will this book scare some readers away from classroom teaching as a (possible) profession? Possibly, but that might be constructive. This book facilitates discussion rather than regurgitating theory or fact. It is obviously anchored in Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, but it offers real-life school examples that prospective teachers can recognize and engage with. Most important, the readers can become part of the brawl, so-to-speak, that all will find in the world of present-day classroom leadership.
Read this book if you want to shore up your own ideas about the personal strategies for becoming an extraordinary instructor. Read this book if you want a glimpse into an overview of the trials and tribulations of molding ordinary individuals into super leaders. Both author develop their thoughts and lay them out, clearly for the reader to view and interpret. Although each of the four sections of the book can stand on their own and provide insight and food for thought to the reader, the concepts presented are interwoven throughout. Thus, I feel that the book is best read as a whole.
Is this book worth having on your bookshelf? Definitely a yes, ... as it would be a valuable addition to the bookshelves of current practitioners, educators, and researchers working with classroom instructors or adults. The practical orientation of the four sections make it easy to access specific information that can readily be incorporated into one’s instructional repertoire. This book is not only a must-read for those involved in classroom education but for that wannabe office manager. It is always arrogant to predict the future, but my speculation is that this book will have made an enduring contribution to the emerging field of extra-ordinary classroom leadership.
Were I to present a professional development (PD) day workshop to educators, I would surely quote often from this book, especially from some of the appealing case studies and personal leadership stories. I thought that I understood MI, but I have never been confronted with such a realistic approach to putting it into practice and hence improving my own personal knowledge. No one will turn its final page without having gained precious information and wisdom that will directly and noticeably improve leadership development. I will look forward to hearing more of their views on the issue in the future. Truly, a well-crafted book and rewarding read!
Notes
1. For a commentary as to the source for this title, see Robert Jeffrey Sternberg's article A Systems Model of Leadership: WICS in the January 2007 issue (Volume 62 Number 1, pp. 34-42) of American Psychologist. There, Sternberg's central theme is that most of us are not born leaders. Throughout, he reviews his own systems model for effective leadership, whereby the following three (3) key parts are synthesized: wisdom, intelligence, and creativity (WICS). Briefly abridged for this web review, his basic stance is that all of these components must work as a unit if one wishes to be a highly effective leader. Creativity is required to generate sound ideas, intelligences are necessary to evaluate whether such ideas are first-rate, and ultimately, successful leaders require wisdom to balance the interests of all and to ensure that they seek a mutual good. In the remainder of the article, Sternberg suggests that such characteristics ought to be viewed as modifiable, flexible, and dynamic rather than as fixed, rigid, and static.
2. For a more detailed presentation explaining the roots of intelligence, see Kirp (2006). Here is part of what he wrote, at that time:
A century’s worth of quantitative-genetics literature concludes that a person’s I.Q. is remarkably stable and that about three-quarters of I.Q. differences between individuals are attributable to heredity. This is how I.Q. is widely understood -- as being mainly “in the genes” -- and that understanding has been used as a rationale for doing nothing about seemingly intractable social problems like the black-white school-achievement gap and the widening income disparity. If nature disposes, the argument goes, there is little to be gained by intervening. In their 1994 best seller, “The Bell Curve,” Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray relied on this research to argue that the United States is a genetic meritocracy and to urge an end to affirmative action. Since there is no way to significantly boost I.Q., prominent geneticists like Arthur Jensen of Berkeley have contended, compensatory education is a bad bet.
But what if the supposed opposition between heredity and environment is altogether misleading? A new generation of studies shows that genes and environment don’t occupy separate spheres -- that much of what is labeled “hereditary” becomes meaningful only in the context of experience. “It doesn’t really matter whether the heritability of I.Q. is this particular figure or that one,” says Sir Michael Rutter of the University of London. “Changing the environment can still make an enormous difference.” If heredity defines the limits of intelligence, the research shows, experience largely determines whether those limits will be reached. And if this is so, the prospects for remedying social inequalities may be better than we thought.
And to see how Jane Carlson-Pickering incorporates Mi into her school program, go to http://www.chariho.k12.ri.us/curriculum/MISmart/mi_smart.html.
3. For a detailed description of how Gardner's different forms of human intelligences have also been considered as different forms of intellectual smarts, go to http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.htm. And for a well-written commentary about each of Gardner's intelligences, see McKay (2007). Here are excerpts from what she wrote at that time:
Bodily -- Kinaesthetic intelligence is distinguished by the ability to expertly control one's body movements and the ability to skillfully handle objects. People who have excellent bodily/kinesthetic intelligence are able to use their hands or their bodies to create items and to solve problems. From an evolutionary perspective, the specialization of body movements has allowed humans to adapt; the development and use of tools further advances the evolution of the human species. In the brain, the motor cortex is responsible for the control of bodily movement. In right-handed people, motor control is located in the left hemisphere; in left-handed people, motor control is located in the right hemisphere. Brain damage, such as apraxia (loss of the ability to carry out movements despite having the willingness and the ability to perform the movements), provides evidence for the existence of bodily/ kinesthetic intelligence. Piaget characterized the qualities associated with this intelligence as the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development. In fact, children's body movements, such as balance, coordination, dexterity, flexibility, reflexes, strength, and expressiveness, develop according to a well-characterized schedule. Those with exceptional bodily-kinesthetic intelligence possess the ability to imagine the movement of their bodies in space and to carry out the actions in physical form. ...... Verbal -- Linguistic intelligence is characterized by a sensitivity to languages, including the ability to learn languages and to use languages to achieve goals. It is one of the later-developing intelligences, because to be linguistically adept requires life experience. Early talkers and readers may not become linguistically gifted if their life experiences are limited. Four components comprise linguistic intelligence: phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguistically intelligent people are aware of the phonetics, or sounds, of language. As a result, they usually possess an advanced verbal sense of humor -- they often use language to make puns, analogies, tongue twisters, and jokes. Those with strong linguistic abilities are able to manipulate the syntax, or structure, of language. They are able to compose exceptionally structured paragraphs and may be particularly sensitive to the composition and grammar in their own and others' oral and written language. Foreign languages come easily, as do reading and memorization. The linguistically gifted tend to be sensitive to semantics, paying close attention to the subtleties of words and their meaning. They are pragmatic in their use of language; they entertain, persuade, teach, and lead through the written and spoken word. Broca's area is the region of the brain that is associated with linguistic intelligence. When Broca's area is damaged, patients are able to comprehend language but are typically unable to generate even simple sentences. In most cultures, language is subject to symbolic encoding (i.e., the alphabet and the written word), thus meeting one of MI's criteria for inclusion. ...
... The career paths for linguistically gifted people include creative and scientific writing, performance in the media and onstage, politics and law, teaching at any educational level, and language translation. Activities that can be used to train linguistic intelligence include listening to recordings of famous speakers, reading one book per week, subscribing to a literary magazine, and memorizing poetry and prose. ...
... Logical -- Mathematical intelligence is distinguished by the ability to solve problems logically, complete mathematical problems quickly, differentiate logical or numerical patterns, and conduct scientific inquiry. To those gifted with mathematical -- logical smarts, the problem-solving process is typically rapid and nonverbal. Solutions often present themselves “out of the blue” and may seem to be invisible to the problem solver. Along with linguistic intelligence, mathematical -- logical facility is at the core of intelligence testing. Areas of the brain involved with this intelligence include the fronto-temporal lobes (logic) and the parieto-frontal lobes (numerical calculation). From a developmental perspective, child prodigies and savants exist, providing additional support for the inclusion of mathematical/ logical intelligence in MI theory. ... Mathematical operations provide a key example of an intelligence that is subject to an encoding system. ...... Career paths for individuals gifted in mathematical/logical intelligence include mathematics and statistics, philosophy, physics, chemistry, biochemistry, engineering, and computer programming. For those strong in mathematical/logical intelligence and linguistic intelligence, careers in scientific communications, research and teaching at the university level, and pharmaceutical drug development may be appropriate. Activities that can be used to train mathematical/logical intelligence include playing math and logic games and brain teasers, learning a computer language, and teaching math and science concepts. ...
... Musical -- Rhythmic intelligence is characterized by auditory imagery (the ability to mentally hear musical tones), and the ability to hear, recognize, and manipulate music. From an evolutionary perspective, the use of music to unify people can be traced to Stone Age societies. The right hemisphere of the brain seems to be associated with musical perceptions and production. However, musical abilities are not clearly localized to a specific region of the brain. The presence of savants suggests that there is a biological predisposition for extreme musical abilities. Musical notation gives evidence that music is subject to an encoding system. From a developmental perspective, evidence suggests that infants can demonstrate computational abilities. Even before they are able to play musical instruments, some young children are adept with rhythm and sound, an occurrence that provides developmental evidence for musical intelligence. Later, children with musical abilities quickly master musical instruments and can demonstrate perfect pitch.
End-state expertise in musical intelligence is evidenced in child prodigies who move quickly to an advanced level of performance. For example, Mozart's musical abilities became apparent around the age of 3. By age 4, he had mastered several pieces for the piano and composed his first pieces at age 5. ... Professionally, people with musical abilities may choose careers as performers, instrument tuners and instrument builders, and music educators. Musical intelligence can be developed by attending concerts and musical performances, taking music lessons, participating in a choir or band, and listening to unfamiliar genres of music.
... Visual -- Spatial intelligence is characterized by the ability to recognize and manipulate areas of space. Specifically, people who possess spatial intelligence have the capacity to perceive the world accurately and are able to transform their initial perceptions through mental rotation. They often see things that other people miss and apply their spatial abilities to arts such as sculpture, invention, painting, photography, interior design, and architecture. Other applications of spatial intelligence include navigation, reconnaissance, and piloting aircraft. The posterior region of the right cerebral cortex is the location in the brain where spatial processing occurs. People who sustain brain damage in this region have difficulty finding their way around a location, recognizing faces, and noticing details. Spatial intelligence contributes to the evolution of a variety of domains, from navigation to sculpture and other visual arts. ...
... Careers for those with spatial intelligence include pilot, navigator, sculptor, mechanical engineer, architect, photographer, computer graphics designer, interior designer, and other careers in the visual arts. Spatial intelligence can be developed by studying geometry, learning photography, studying optical illusions, and learning navigation skills.
...
... Careers suited for those with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include actors, stunt people, comedians, dancers, horse trainers, athletes, coaches, figure skaters, and artisans. The following activities can be performed to train bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: taking lessons in a sport such as golf, swimming, gymnastics, or dance; playing charades; taking acting classes; practicing yoga; playing video games that require quick reflexes; and engaging in imagery and visualization experiences that emphasize bodily movements.
... Interpersonal -- Social intelligence is characterized by the ability to accurately evaluate the moods, intentions, thoughts, feelings, and motivations of other people. From an evolutionary perspective, interpersonal intelligence affects the ways that people interact with and sustain communities. The interpersonal qualities of leadership, teaching, and healing all take place within a social context and play a role in the survival and evolution of societies. The frontal lobe is indicated as the area of the brain involved with interpersonal intelligence. Damage to this area via injury, lobotomy, or Pick's disease (a type of dementia) results in lasting personality changes, although other problem-solving capacities are left intact. Evidence for a biological basis for interpersonal intelligence has been linked to two factors. During the prolonged childhood of primates, attachment to a mother seems to be an important aspect of normal interpersonal development. In cases when the mother figure is not present or involved with her young, normal development of primates has been shown to be compromised. Next, in humans, social interactions such as cooperation, leadership, group cohesion, and organization have played salient roles in completing skilled tasks such as hunting, tracking, and the formation and maintenance of communities. Facial expressions, gestures, other body language, and verbal cues make up the symbol system for interpersonal intelligence.
... Careers suited for those with interpersonal intelligence include teaching, spiritual and political leadership, sales, and acting. The following activities can be used to develop interpersonal intelligence: practice evaluating other people's moods and feelings, teach or counsel people through a volunteer service organization, go to a public place and observe how people interact, meet a new person every day, take a course that focuses on interpersonal communications, make eye contact with others during conversations, and notice people's nonverbal communication (body language) as they interact.
... Intrapersonal -- Introspective intelligence is characterized by the ability to access and understand one's own internal experiences, including a range of emotions, and to draw on internal experiences as a means of making decisions about, and guiding, one's behavior. People with strong intrapersonal intelligence also have an accurate understanding of how they fit in relation to other people and have a strong sense of self. They have the ability to be both creative and intimate, and they possess the capacity to be alone. Because this particular intelligence is psychically manifested, language, music, or other creative expression is often used to describe the experiences of an intrapersonally intelligent person.
As is the case with interpersonal intelligence, the frontal lobe is involved with personality. Damage to the frontal lobe can alter personality but leave other cognitive functions intact. An individual may be irritable or euphoric in the case of damage to the lower areas of the frontal lobe; or listless, slow, and apathetic if damage occurs in the higher regions. The development of intrapersonal intelligence seems to start in early childhood, as children learn to understand their identities in the context of the world around them. A positive self-concept tends to develop when children are nurtured and loved. Autistic individuals provide an example of those in whom intrapersonal intelligence is impaired. Although an autistic individual may not be able to refer to him- or herself, he or she typically demonstrates extraordinary abilities in mathematical/logical intelligence or in musical intelligence. Gardner acknowledges that evolutionary evidence of intrapersonal intelligence is difficult to identify. However, intrapersonal intelligence is thought to serve the purpose of assisting people to overcome or manage their basic human instincts after the need for survival has been met. As the symbol system that most closely maps to intrapersonal intelligence, dreams offer symbols that relate to aspects of the self. Finally, intra-personal intelligence seems to play a role in the advancement of culture, as this particular ability helps people better understand themselves and perhaps proceed to make choices that benefit society.
... To train intrapersonal intelligence, people can engage in counseling or psychotherapy, learn and practice meditation, keep a dream journal, and read self-help books and other inspirational books.
... Naturalistic -- Environmental intelligence is characterized by the ability to recognize and classify different species of flora and fauna in the environment. From an evolutionary perspective, naturalistic intelligence ensured the survival of the human species. Hunters and gatherers necessarily had to distinguish sustainable nutrients from poisonous varieties, and differentiate predators from prey. Naturalistic intelligence has been subject to encoding and language throughout history: taxonomic and linguistic systems exist for encoding varieties of species. It is unclear which neural centers are involved in naturalistic intelligence. However, in brain-damaged patients, the ability to recognize and classify living organisms is absent, whereas the ability to name and recognize inanimate objects remains intact. The opposite case has been found as well. Some brain-damaged patients retain the ability to name and recognize living objects, whereas they cannot do the same with inanimate objects. This phenomenon provides initial support for the likelihood that abilities associated with naturalistic intelligence may be localized in the brain. Developmental evidence for naturalistic intelligence consists of the observation that children are frequently interested and involved with the identification and naming of objects in the natural world. For example, children may display an enthusiasm for dinosaurs or insects; they may be found digging in the dirt, collecting rocks, and playing in the trees. Later on, naturalistic intelligence may manifest as specific abilities in gardening, hunting and fishing, and hiking and camping, as well as involvement in environmental organizations.
... Professionally, people with naturalistic intelligence may pursue careers in gardening, environmental science, botany, entomology, veterinary medicine, viticulture (wine making), and wildlife management and preservation. Activities that can be employed to train naturalistic intelligence include spending time in the natural world, studying species of birds and other wildlife, reading magazines that focus on nature, and keeping a nature journal that details observations and questions about the natural world. ...