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Egan, K., & Gardner, H. (1992, Winter). An exchange: The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. Teachers College Record. 94(2), 397-407.

Eisner, Elliot, W. (1994 06 01, Summer). Commentary: Putting multiple intelligences in context: Some questions and observations. Teachers College Record. 95(4), 555-560.

Ellison, L. (1992, Oct). Using multiple intelligences to set goals. Educational Leadership, 50(2), 69-72.

Evans, C. (1995, December). Access, equity, and intelligence: Another look at tracking. English Journal, 84(8), 63-65.

Ericsson, Karl Anders
Ericsson, K. A. (1976). Approaches to descriptions and analyses of problem-solving processes: The 8-puzzle. Reports from the Department of Psychology, the University of Stockholm, Supplement No. 32 (Doctoral dissertation).

Ericsson, K. A.. (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141-189). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ericsson, K. A. (1985). Memory skill. Canadian Journal of Psychology , 39 (2), 188-231.

Ericsson, K. A. (1988). Concurrent verbal reports on reading and text comprehension. Text , 8 (4), 295-325.

Ericsson, K. A. (1996a). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some of the issues. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 1-50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. In summarizing this book chapter, David Zach Hambrick states:

One of the greatest challenges facing researchers interested in expert performance is the limited access to experts. Experts are rare, particularly if one adopts a definition of expert performance in which the expert is defined as statistical outlier. Nevertheless, in research on expert performance, there are alternatives to laboratory studies. In this chapter, Ericsson describes three complementary alternative approaches.

Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.) (1996b). The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games. Mahweh, NJ: Erlbaum. Summary author David Zach Hambrick comments that:

This book covers skill mastery in many domains (golf, wrestling, chess, music), showing the commonalities that lie at the heart of exceptional, as apposed to average, performance (e.g. consistent, focused practices over years characterized by high quality feedback, the need for the individual to master self-regulation if he or she wants to increase skill over time, etc.). It also provides a cautionary tale, in the form of a golf pro who developed exceptional skill but who never achieved the type of fame or wealth of say a Jack Nicholas. Why? Because skill too narrowly defined, no mater how great, does not lead to achievement. You have to take in the total context (social, political, etc) if you want your "skill" to lead to widespread recognition. At least that's what I took away from my reading. While the book doesn't lay out an explicit "blue print" for applying it's information, it is still a wonderful resource for trainers or teachers looking to develop high level instruction and to mentor those pursuing peak performance.

Ericsson, K. A. (1998). The Scientific Study of Expert Levels of Performance: General Implications for Optimal Learning and Creativity. High Ability Studies, 9(1), 75-100.

Ericsson, K. A. (1999). Creative expertise as superior reproducible performance: Innovative and flexible aspects of expert performance. Psychological Inquiry, 10(4), 329-333.

Ericsson, K. A. (2000a). Expertise in interpreting: An expert-performance perspective. Interpreting, 5(2), 187-220.

Ericsson, K. A. (2000b). How experts attain and maintain superior performance: Implications for the enhancement of skilled performance in older individuals. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 8, 346-352.

Expertise refers to the mechanisms underlying the top-quality accomplishment of an expert, i.e. "one who has acquired special skill in or knowledge of a particular subjects through professional training and practical experience" (Webster's dictionary, 1976, p. 800). The term expert is used to describe highly experienced professionals such as accountants, medical doctors, teachers and scientists, including individuals who attained their superior performance by instruction and extended practice: highly skilled performers in the arts, such as music, painting and writing, sports, such as swimming, running and golf and games, such as bridge and chess.

Ericsson, K. A. (2001a). The path to expert golf performance: Insights from the masters on how to improve performance by deliberate practice. In P. R. Thomas (Ed.), Optimizing performance in golf (pp. 1-57). Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press.

Ericsson, K. A. (2001b). Protocol analysis in psychology. In N. Smelser and P. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 12256-12262). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

Ericsson, K. A. (2002a). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In M. Ferrari (Ed.), The pursuit of excellence in education (pp. 21-55). Hillsdale , N.J. : Erlbaum.

Ericsson, K. A. (2002b). Toward a procedure for eliciting verbal expression of nonverbal experience without reactivity: Interpreting the verbal overshadowing effect within the theoretical framework for protocol analysis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 981-987.

Ericsson, K. A. (2003a). The acquisition of expert performance as problem solving: Construction and modification of mediating mechanisms through deliberate practice. In J. E. Davidson and R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Problem solving (pp. 31-83). New York : Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A. (2003b). The development of elite performance and deliberate practice: An update from the perspective of the expert-performance approach. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 49-81). Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.

Ericsson, K. A.. (2003c). Exceptional memorizers: made, not born. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(6), 233-235.

Ericsson, K. A. (2003d). How the expert-performance approach differs from traditional approaches to expertise in sports: In search of a shared theoretical framework for studying expert performance. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 371-401). Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics.

Ericsson, K. A. (2003e). The search for general abilities and basic capacities: Theoretical implications from the modifiability and complexity of mechanisms mediating expert performance. In R. J. Sternberg and E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspectives on the psychology of abilities, competencies, and expertise (pp. 93-125). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A. (2003f). Valid and non-reactive verbalization of thoughts during performance of tasks: Toward a solution to the central problems of introspection as a source of scientific data. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 10(9-10), 1-18 .

Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains. Academic Medicine, 10, S1-S12.

Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994, August). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725-747.

Ericsson, K. Anders, & Charness, N. (1995, September). Abilities: Evidence for talent or characteristics acquired through engagement in relevant activities? American Psychologist, 50(9), 803-804.
Ericsson, K. A. & Charness, N. (1997). Cognitive and developmental factors in expert performance. In P. J. Feltovich, K. M. Ford, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context: Human and machine (pp 3-41). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J ., & Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.) (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Throughout this publication, the editors and chapter authors argue that the so-called genetic characteristic that we commonly call talent is vastly overestimated. Or, expert performers -- whether in memory, surgery, ballet or computer programming -- are nearly always made ... not born.

To read my review of this handbook, click on the book's front cover image.

Ericsson, K. A., & Chase, W. G.. (1982). Exceptional memory. American Scientist, 70, 607-615.

Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208, 1181-1182.

Ericsson, K. A., & Crutcher, R. J.. (1991). Introspection and verbal reports on cognitive processes - two approaches to the study of thought processes: A response to Howe. New Ideas in Psychology, 9, 57-71.

Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F.. (1998). Working memory and expert performance. In R. H. Logie and K. J. Gilhooly (Eds.), Working Memory and Thinking (pp. 93-114). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.

Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F.. (1999). Long-term working memory as an alternative to capacity models of working memory in everyday skilled performance. In A. Miyake and P. Shah (Eds.), Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control (pp. 257-297), Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R.. (2004). Uncovering the structure of a memorist's superior “basic” memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology.

Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W.. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102(2), 211-245. In reviewing this article, summary author David Zach Hambrick writes:

The sine qua non of skilled cognitive performance is the ability to access large amounts of domain specific information. For example, it is estimated that chess masters have access to as many as 100,000 familiar configurations of chess pieces (Chase & Simon, 1973). As another example, in order to make sense of what he or she is reading, a reader must have access to information gained from previously read text. This is particularly true when reading complex technical material filled with jargon.

Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W.. (2000). Shortcomings of generic retrieval structures with slots of the type that Gobet (1993) proposed and modeled. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 571-588.

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance Psychological Review, 100, 363-406. To see a greater summary of this article, go here. In his summary review of this same article, David Zach Hambrick comments:

This study was one of the first and arguably the most influential contributions to the expertise literature that defines and provides a detailed theoretical account of a key component of skill acquisition (deliberate practice) and assesses its contribution over the lifespan in the context of a complex and ecologically valid cognitive skill, the high-level performance of a musical instrument. The demonstration of a close relationship between achievement level and cumulated hours of deliberate practice is one of the most important and compelling contributions to the debate about the explanation of "talent" that has been published this century.

Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C.. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305. In this summary review of this journal article, David Zach Hambrick comments that:

"The focus of this paper is the adaptability of human behavior to environmental demands. A major assumption of the talent view of expert performance is that while practice is necessary, asymptotic performance levels are constrained by stable, invariant constraints. By contrast, Ericsson and Lehmann assert that "The belief that most anatomical and physiological characteristics are unmodifiable and thus reflect innate talent is not valid for expert performance acquired through at least a decade of intense practice" (p. 279). The cite evidence from studies of expert performers (e.g., ballet dancers) showing that adaptations--for example, to the musculature--are the result of very specific types of stimulation. In addition, there is evidence showing no differences between experts and novices on general measures of cognitive and perceptual functioning. To illustrate, the correlation between IQ and domain-specific performance decreases with continued practice. (However, what does an initially stronger correlation suggest? One possibility is that general factors play a role early -- as Fleishman and Ackerman have proposed."

Ericsson, K. A., Nadogapal, K., & Roring, R. W. (Spring, 2005). Giftedness from the expert-performance perspective. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28(3/4), 287-311.

Here, the authors argue that individuals appear to have developed their expertise gradually. For example, by early adulthood gifted musicians had, by virtue of starting earlier and / or practicing more, accumulated up to twice as much deliberate practice as highly skilled, but not exceptional, peers.

Ericsson, K. A., & Oliver, W., L.. (1988). Methodology for laboratory research on thinking: Task selection, collection of observations, and data analysis. In R. J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 392 - 428). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A., Patel, V. L., & Kintsch, W. (2000). How experts' adaptations to representative task demands account for the expertise effect in memory recall: Comment on Vicente and Wang (1998). Psychological Review, 107, 578-592.

Ericsson, K. A., & Polson, P. G. (1988). An experimental analysis of the mechanisms of a memory skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 14, 305-316.

Ericsson, K. A., Prietula, M. J., & Cokely, E. T. (2007, July/August). The making of an expert. Harvard Business Review, Volume 85(7/8), 5, 114-121.

At the outset, these authors state: "[N]ew research shows that outstanding performance is the product of years of deliberate practice and coaching, not of any innate talent or skill" (p. 115). For eight (8) pages, they challenges the conventional conviction that expertise and genius are synonymous with societal success. They mention how they studied data on the behavior of experts gathered by more than 100 scientists, continuously wrestling with the popular lore that geniuses are born and not made. They discuss scientific research that showed that experts are developed through years of dedicated practice and coaching, not simply born into their expertise. According to their findings, leaders can improve abilities through deliberate practice, feedback, and inner coaching. Regular practice is not sufficient alone to become an expert. Instead, to reach the highest levels in your field, you must reach to expand your abilities that are outside your comfort zone and you must do this in a continuous and disciplined manner. They state that becoming an expert is a long road (at least a decade) and requires guidance.

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A.. (1980, May). Verbal reports as data, Psychological review, 87(3), 215-251.

This paper justified the use of verbal (think-aloud) protocols as a reasonable method to investigate cognitive processes

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A.. (1993). Protocol analysis; Verbal reports as data: Revised Edition. Cambridge, MA: Bradford books/MIT Press.

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A.. (1998). How to study thinking in everyday life: Contrasting think-aloud protocols with descriptions and explanations of thinking. Mind, Culture, & Activity, 5(3), 178-186.

Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, Jacqui. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J.. (Eds.) (1991a). Prospects and limits of the empirical study of expertise: An introduction. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise (pp. 1--38). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J.. (Eds.) (1991b). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K. A., & Staszewski, J. J.. (1989). Skilled memory and expertise: Mechanisms of exceptional performance. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon (pp. 235-267). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. In his summary review of this book chapter, David Zach Hambrick states:

The early work on expertise showed that novice-expert differences in domain-specific performance can be accounted for by differences in amount of knowledge: experts are more knowledgeable than novices. For example, Chase and Simon estimated that expert chess players have a vocabulary of up to 50,000 patterns representing familiar configurations of chess pieces. While appealing to differences in amount of knowledge to explain expert-novice differences makes good sense, it presents what Ericsson and Staszewski call a "thorny" problem: How do experts process an enormous amount of information given that they are subject to the same basic information processing demands as novices? More specifically, How is it that experts bring more knowledge to bear on problem solving and skilled performance than novices and at the same time perform more quickly and accurately (p. 237)?

Estes, W. K. (1982). Learning, memory, and intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 170-224). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Evans, C. (1995, December). Access, equity, and intelligence: Another look at tracking. English Journal, 84(8), 63-65.