2008 Author / Name Index | home
Biographies This site is devoted to the history of psychology and Muskingum College. It is continually being updated as biographies are completed and new resources are found and developed. Linked to this page are historical reviews of important figures in the history of psychology, Muskingum College and its psychology program, and relevant links to off-campus sites which have been compiled by our students and staff.
Classics in the History of Psychology An internet resource developed by Christopher D. Green York University, Toronto, Canada Documents Sorted by Authors / Names
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Alfred AdlerAlbee, G. W. (1982). The politics of nature and nurture. American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 4-30.
Albert, M. L., Yamadori, A., Gardner, H., & Howes, D. (1973, June). Comprehension in alexia. Brain, 96(2), 317-328.
Allport, D. A. (1980). Patterns and actions: Cognitive mechanisms are content specific. In G. Claxton (Ed.). Cognitive Psychology: New Direction, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological testing, (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Anderson, Patricia, M. (1993, December). Development of intelligent computer-assisted instruction systems to facilitate reading skills of learning disabled children. Unpublished master's thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA.
Andrews, J., Rosenblatt, E., Malkus, U., & Gardner, H. (1986). Children's abilities to distinguish metaphoric and ironic utterances from mistakes and lies. Communication & Cognition, 19(3-4), 281-297.
Armstrong, Thomas. (1987). Describing strengths in children identified as learning disabled using Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences as an organizational framework. (Doctoral dissertation, University of ?). Dissertation Abstracts, 48. 08A. (University Microfilms No. 87-25, 844)
Armstrong, T. (1987). In their own way: Discovering and encouraging your child's personal learning style. New York: Tarcher/Putnam.
Armstrong, T. (1988, September). Learning differences -- not disabilities. Principal, 68(1), 34-36. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ 377 480)
Armstrong, T. (1991). Awakening your child's natural genius. Los Angeles, CA.: Jerermy P. Tarcher.
Armstrong, T. (1993a). 7 kinds of smart: Identifying and developing your many intelligences. New York: Plume/Penguin.
Armstrong, T. (1993b, January 23). Seven kinds of smart: The theory of multiple intelligences. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Coastal Conference of The Orton Dyslexia Society.
Armstrong, T. (1994a). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Armstrong, T. (1994b, November). Multiple intelligences: Seven ways to approach curriculum. Educational Leadership, 52(3), 26-28.
Armstrong, T. (1998). Awakening Genius in the classroom. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Armstrong, T. (1999). ADD/ADHD Alternatives in the classroom. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. 2nd Edition. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Arnold, L. , Willoughby, T. L., & Calkins, E. V. (1985). Self-evaluation in undergraduate medical education: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Medical Education, 60, 21-28.
Aschoff, Susan (May 27, 2006). Anyone can have his shot. St. Petersburg Times. Here is part of her interview with Karl Anders Ericsson.
You’ve been called the ringleader of the expert performance movement. What is that?
I started to do this work trying to understand how people could improve their memory. As I saw the tremendous effects of training on memory performance, I got interested in looking at people who were experts at other things. I was asking if those people who were successful in virtually any domain had done something to be that successful.So memory enhances expertise. You also talk about deliberate practice. Can you explain that to me?
Deliberate practice is to repeat what you’re doing so you can correct it. Experience does not improve performance. Some amateur golfers can play at the same level for 30 years, and they don’t automatically get better. Once people reach some acceptable level, they seem to get stuck there. In order to keep improving, you need to structure your training around specific goals. If you are a golfer, you don’t just stand there and hit balls as hard as you can.Do you mean that practice or experience is not everything it is cracked up to be?
Not all experts are performing at consistently high levels. Stockbrokers who invest in the market are not necessarily more successful than average individuals. Psychotherapists who have extensive training and experience are not more successful than those with much less training. We’re really not interested in socially defined expertise. We’re interested in expert performance where people can consistently do things at a superior level. Then we can start asking, what are they thinking when they’re successful, and how is their developmental history different?What about the child star, the one who can play concert violin at age 3 or hit the ball out of the park in Little League?
When we go back and look at these talented children, we see all kinds of training activities. When I read biographies of Olympic athletes, I found that even as children they set up competitive games for themselves -- how long it took to complete the obstacle course. Competition almost forces people to come up with feedback. Sounds like we’re all supposed to be stage parents. In the long run, most children will rebel. If a child doesn’t want to engage in deliberate practice, there’s no way you can force them. It’s problem-solving. You can’t push someone to do it if they don’t want to.Can you apply your research to many areas of expertise?
We’re doing research on police officers and critical care nurses. A lot of the things that happen for a critical care nurse or police officer -- it’s not like they’ve had that happen before. You want them to handle that first time successfully. We look at what the most skilled people do and think, and convert it to a methodology for all to use.
Ashworth, P. D. (1996). Presuppose nothing! The suspension of assumptions in phenomenological psychological methodology. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 27, 1-25.
Autman, Samuel (1997, December 3). West end school becomes a mecca for intelligence theory. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, p. B1.
B
Bain, Neville. (1996, March). Management's vital component [Review of Leading minds: An anatomy of leadership]. Management Today, 26.
Baker, L.A., Asendorpf, J., Bishop, D., Boomsma, D.I., Bouchard, T.J., Brand, C.R., Fulker, D.W., Gardner, H., & Kinsbourne, M. (1993). Group report: Intelligence and its inheritance -- A diversity of views. In Thomas J. Bouchard & Perer Propping (Eds.). Twins as a source of behavioral genetics. Life sciences research report, 53. (pp. 85-108). Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons.
Bandura's Self-Efficacy This incredibly comprehensive site includes links to numerous resources concerning self-efficacy, Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory and related research.
Bandura, Albert as compiled by Amanda Moore, in May of 1999
"This page contains a biography of Albert Bandura and an overview of the history of his program of research. The site includes some extensions to uses of social learning theory in therapeutic settings and references to Bandura's major writings."
Bandura, Albert by Dr. C. George Boeree
"Albert Bandura was born December 4, 1925, in the small town of Mundare, in northern Alberta, Canada. He was educated in a small elementary school and high school in one, with minimal resources, yet a remarkable success rate. After high school, he worked for one summer filling holes on the Alaska Highway in the Yukon. He received his bachelors degree in Psychology from the University of British Columbia in 1949. He went on to the University of Iowa, where he received his Ph.D. in 1952. It was there that he came under the influence of the behaviorist tradition and learning theory. While at Iowa, he met Virginia Varns, an instructor in the nursing school. They married and later had two daughters. After graduating, he took a postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center in Wichita, Kansas. In 1953, he started teaching at Stanford University. While there, he collaborated with his first graduate student, Richard Walters, resulting in their first book, Adolescent Aggression, in 1959. Bandura was president of the APA in 1973, and received the APA’s Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions in 1980. He continues to work at Stanford to this day."
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (Is it 1977 or is it 1982). Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
Barrell, J. J., & Barrell, J. E. (1975, Fall). A self-directed approach for a science of human experience. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 6(1), 63-73.
Barrett, G. V., & Depinet, R. L. (1991, October). A reconsideration of testing for competence rather than for intelligence. American Psychologist, 46(10), 1012-1024.
Barritt, Loren, Bleekman, Ton, Bleeker, Hans, and Mulderij, Karel, (1985). Researching Education Practices, Grand Forks, ND, University of North Dakota, Center for Teaching and Learning.
Baum, S. (1984). Meeting the needs of learning disabled gifted students. Roeper Review, 7, 16-19.
Baum, S. (1988). An enrichment program for gifted learning disabled pupils. Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 226-230.
Bennis, Warren (1998, October 25). It ain't what you know: As everybody knows. But there's more to it than that. [Review of Working With Emotional Intelligence]. The New York Times Book Review, 147(51321), 50. And click here to read the first chapter titled The New Yardstick.
Benson, D. F., Gardner, H., & Meadows, J. C. (1976, February). Reduplicative paramnesia. Neurology, 26(2), 147-151.
Berg, Cynthia, A., & Sternberg, R. J. (1985, December). A triarchic theory of intellectual development during adulthood. Developmental Review, 5, 334-370.
Berk, Laura E. (1994, November). Why children talk to themselves. Scientific American, 271(5), 78-83.
Beyond Intelligence Testing. (1988, Spring). National Forum: The Phi Kappa Phi Journal, 68(2), 2-29.
Alfred Bine-1 | Alfred Binet-2
| Around 1905, Binet developed a test in which Parisian school children were asked to complete tasks such as a) following commands, b) copying patterns, c) naming objects, and d) putting things in order or arranging them properly. Binet created a standard based on his research data. For example, if 70% of 8-year-old children could pass his particular test, then he stated that success on the test represented an 8-year-old's level of intelligence. From his work, stemmed the phrase intelligence quotient, or IQ, the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA), with the numeral 100 being considered an average IQ. That is, an 8 year old child who passed a 10 year-old test would have an IQ of 10 / 8 x 100, or 125. Binet's original efforts set into motion a passion for testing. In the enthusiasm, a widespread application of tests and scoring measures developed from relatively limited data. For example, tests based on Binet's efforts were used by the army to sort out the vast numbers of recruits for World War I.Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostique du niveau intellectuel des anormaux [New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals] English translation by Elizabeth S. Kite First published in 1916 in The development of intelligence in children. Vineland, NJ: Publications of the Training School at Vineland. First published in L'Annee Psychologique volume 12, pages 191-245. Available on Web at Classics in the History of Psychology site http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Binet/binet1.htm.
When Binet was asked at the turn of the century to provide a test of intelligence, his mission was to create a test that would serve an important purpose in the context of the schools: to distinguish for special-education purposes in the academic setting children who were truly mentally retarded from those who were behaviorally disabled
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1908). Le développment de l'intelligence chez les enfants [The development of intelligence in children]. LíAnnée Psychologique, 14, 1-90.
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children. (The Binet-Simon Scales) Translated from articles in LíAnnée Psychologique from 1905, 1908, and 1911 by Elizabeth. S. Kite. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkens. (Original work published 1905)
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The intelligence of the feeble-minded. (Elizabeth. S. Kite, Trans.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkens, 366pp.
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1973). The development of intelligence in young children. New York: Arno Press. First published in 1908.
Bireley, Marlene (19??). Conceptions of intelligence and giftedness. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 344 405)
Blythe, Tina. & Gardner, H. (1990, April). A school for all intelligences. Educational Leadership, 47(7), 33-37. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ 405 189)
Blythe, Tina, White, Noel & Gardner, H. (1995, April). Teaching practical intellingence: What research tells us. West Lafayette, IN: Harringfton Park Press.
Blythe, T., Gardner, H., (1994). Grimes, J., Li, T., Lubart, T., Sternberg, R. J., White, N., & Williams, W. (1994). Practical intelligence for school: Final report. Unpublished report.
Bloom, B. (Ed.). (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York: Ballantine Books.
Bloom's taxonomy St. Edward's University This site is all about Bloom’s taxonomy. For each level of the taxonomy, the site lists verbs that can be used to fram objectives or / and questions.
Bodine, R. (1973). Teachers' self-assessment. In E. R. House (Ed.), School evaluation: The politics and process (pp. 169-173). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Bornstein, M. H. (1986). [Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences]. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 20(2), 120-122.
Bosman, E. A., & Charness, N. (1996) Age-related differences in skilled performance and skill acquisition. In F. Blanchard-Fields & T. M. Hess (Eds.), Perspectives on cognitive change in adulthood and aging (pp. 428-453). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bouchard, Thomas (July 20, 1984) Review of Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 506-508.
Bracey, G. W. (1985, January). Changed lives, changed policies? Phi Delta Kappan, 66(5), 375-376.
Bracey, Gerald, W. (1992, January). Getting smart(er) in school. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(5), 414-416.
Brand, Christopher. (1996, Spring). The g Factor: General Intelligence and its Implications Chichester, UK: Wiley.Early in 1996, this book which is basically all about intelligence and education, was published in the United Kingdom and withdrawn within two months, due mainly to a frenzy of very negative media coverage. The publisher, Wiley, also canceled the book's distribution in the United States before any copies went on sale. The provocative yet somewhat worthy book created shock waves, mainly throughout Britain, by tracing educational failure largely to genetic deficiency in mental speed. The book appeared after years in which educationalists and the media had played down to vanishing point the importance of inheritance in yielding individual and group differences in attainment. Brand, the book's author, was fired from his teaching position at Edinburgh University.
To continue, in the April 19, 1996 issue of The Times Educational Supplement (TES), James Montgomery wrote Racist claims stir up IQ debate. Here is part of what he had to say about Brand's book, at that time: "Edinburgh University psychologist Christopher Brand follows in the footsteps of The Bell Curve, a book by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray which caused a furor by linking race and intelligence. Citing studies of adopted children and twins raised apart, Brand argues that differences in intellectual ability are the result of a fixed and hereditary general intelligence. Genetic factors may account for up to 75 per cent of variation in intellectual ability and have an important bearing on academic ability as well as probable success in later life, he claims.
Brand endorses Herrnstein and Murray's racist view that Afro-Caribbeans are less intelligent than Asians and whites, and discusses the possibility of encouraging low-IQ teenagers to choose partners of higher IQ to raise the intelligence of the next generation. However, his views are likely to be rejected by academics and educationists who increasingly view such theories as unreliable or irrelevant.
Rejecting environmental explanations of IQ, Brand argues that general intelligence - or the "g factor" - has been denied by experts in Britain in the face of mounting empirical evidence, often for ideological reasons. A severe critic of comprehensive education, he defends Cyril Burt, the psychologist whose theories about inherited intelligence and testing lay behind the introduction of the 11-plus exam. Subsequent research has "entirely vindicated" Burt's conclusions, he says.
Brand, a former prison psychologist whose academic research has involved a particular measure of IQ known as inspection time testing, goes on to call for radical educational reform, including self-streaming, pupil empowerment and accelerated learning."
Brandt, L. W. (1970, August -- December). Control or reduction of variables? An experimenter inclusive model. Psychological reports. 27, 80-82.
Brandt, Ron. (1987-1988, December-January). On assessment in the arts: A conversation with Howard Gardner. Educational Leadership, 45(4), 30-34. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ 367 384)
Braten, Ivar (1991a). Vygotsky as precursor to metacognitive theory: I. The concept of metacognition and its roots. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 35(3), 179-192.
Braten, I. (1991b). Vygotsky as precursor to metacognitive theory: II. Vygotsky as metacognitivist. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 35(4), 305-320.
Braten, I. (1992). Vygotsky as precursor to metacognitive theory: III. Recent metacognitive research within a Vygotskian framework. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 36(1), 3-19.
Broca, Peirre-Paul
Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence. (2nd ed.). New York: Academic Press.
In his evaluation of what he simply terms a taxonomy, Brody argues, at some length, that Howard Gardner's "list of intelligences is arbitrary, and that his attempt to restructure the theory of intelligence to omit a general factor is no more successful than the attempts of psychometric theorists to dispense with g" (p. 36). Brody fails to see how Gardner's eight (8) criteria leads to the set of intelligences that he posits. Moreover, Brody has problems with HEG's evidence of the independence of intelligences resulting from HEG's study of 'rare' cases of prodigies and savants, to name just two. And Brody feels that "the independent functioning of intelligences following brain damage may be of little relevance to understand the performance of intact individuals" (p. 29).
Here, the reader sees two (2) well-respected theorists of intelligence (Robert Sternberg and Nathan Brody) finding Gardner's taxonomy to be without empirical foundation, and thus subject to extreme judgment. Gardner (1993) has been the first to admit that his "intelligences are fictions -- at most, useful fictions -- for identifying processes and abilities that (like all of life) are continuous with one another" (p. 70). In defense of Howard Earle, I must point out that the field of developmental cognitive science (DCS) is a new, young, and growing field and that all evidence should thus be taken as tentative rather than definite. In DCS, researchers continue to hypothesize about the existence of 100 distinct areas in the cerebral cortex, still trying to shade them, to ascertain their identities, and to see how they connect with each another.
Brooks, David (Friday, September 14, 2007). The Waning of IQ NY TIMES, Op-Ed Columnist, p. A25.
Brown, Ann. L. & French, Lucia A. (1979). The zone of potential development: Implications for intelligence testing in the year 2000. Intelligence, 3, 255-273.
Brown, J. D., Collins, R. L., & Schmidt, G. W. (1988). Self-esteem and direct versus indirect forms of self-enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 445-453.
Brown, Justin & Langer, Ellen (1990). Mindfulness and intelligence: A comparison. Educational Psychologist, 25(3&4), 305-335.
Brownell, H. H., & Gardner, H. (1988). Neuropsychological insights into humour. In John Durant & Jonathan Miller (Eds.). Laughing matters: A serious look at humour (pp. 17-34). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Brownell, H. H., Michel, D., Powelson, J., & Gardner, H. (1983, January). Surprise but not coherence: Sensitivity to verbal humor in right-hemisphere patients. Brain & Language, 18(1), 20-27.
Brownell, H. H., Potter, H. H., Bihrle, A. M., & Gardner, H. (1986, March). Inference deficits in right brain-damaged-patients. Brain & Language, 27(2), 310-321.
Bryant, Peter (1996, May 1). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist. [Review of Fred Newman & Lois Holzmanís 1993 book, Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist]. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 350(2).Bryan, W. L., & Harter, N. (1897). Studies in the physiology and psychology of the telegraphic language. Psychological Review, 4, 27-53.
Bryan, W. L., & Harter, N. (1899). Studies on the telegraphic language: The acquisition of a hierarchy of habits. Psychological Review, 6, 345-375.
Buescher, Thomas, M. (1985, Spring). Seeking the roots of talent: An interview with Howard Gardner. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. 8(3), 179-186. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ 319 912)
Bruner, Jerome, S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, Jerome, S. (1997, March-April) Celebrating divergence: Piaget and Vygotsky, Human Development, 40(2), 63-73.
C
Calvin, William H. The Emergence of Intelligence
Camerer, C. F., & Johnson, E. J. (1991). The process-performance paradox in expert judgment: How can experts know so much and predict so badly? In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.).
Towards a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 195-217). New York: Cambridge Press.Campbell, B. (1994). The Multiple Intelligences Handbook: Lesson Plans and More. Stanwood, Wash.: Campbell and Associates, Inc.
Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching and Learning Through Multiple Intelligences. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon/Simon and Schuster.
Campione, J. C., Brown, A. L., & Ferrara, R. A. (1982). Mental retardation and intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 392-490). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Caramazza, A., Zurif, E. B., & Gardner, H. (1978). Sentence memory in aphasia. Neuropsychologia, 16(6), 661-669.
Carothers, T., & Gardner, H. (1979, September). When children's drawings become art: The emergence of aesthetic production and perception. Developmental Psychology, 15(5), 569-580.
Carroll, John The Bell Curve
Carroll, John, B. (1982). The measurement of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of human intelligence (pp. 29-120). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Carroll, John, B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
This book offers the most extensive factor-analysis of mental tests. Carroll finds it interesting "that the kinds of 'intelligences' described by Gardner show a fairly close correspondence with the broad domains of ability" as suggested by Raymond Cattell and John Horn. For example, Carroll believes that Gardner's linguistic intelligence corresponds closely to the concepts of Cattell and Horn's crystallized intelligence. Carroll also views Gardner's logical-mathematical and visual-spatial intelligence suspiciously similar to the concept of fluid intelligence and visual perception, respectively (p. 641; for a similar critique, see Bouchard 1984, p. 507).
Carroll, John, B. (1995). Reflections on Stephen Jay Gould's The Mismeasure of Man (1981): A retrospective review. Intelligence, 21, 121-134.
Carroll, John, B. (1997). Psychometrics, intelligence, and public perception [Special Issue]. Intelligence, 24(1), 25-52.
Carson, Andrew To read how Carson cites five (5) reasons "for why vocational psychologists have largely ignored Gardner's work in general and his MI theory in particular", click here
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1994). Self-focus and self-attention. In M. W. Eysenck (Ed.), The Blackwell Dictionary of Cognitive Psychology (pp. 317-325) Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Case, Robbie (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.
Casse, Daniel, (1998, August 1). IQ since "The Bell Curve", Commentary, 106, pp. 33(7).
Ceci, Steven
Ceci, a developmental psychologist at Cornell, praises Gardner as "a wonderful communicator" who has publicized "a much more egalitarian view of intelligence." But he points out that Gardner's approach of constructing criteria and then running candidate intelligences through them, while suggestive, provides no hard evidence -- no test results, for example -- that his colleagues could evaluate. Ceci adds: "The neurological data show that the brain is modular, but that does not address the issue of whether all these things are correlated or not." Track-and-field athletes, he notes, may have special gifts in one particular event, but they will score better than the average person on every event. Psychological tests show the same kind of correlation. ..."
Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 703-722.
Ceci, S. J. (1996). On intelligence: A bioecological treatise on intellectual development. Expanded Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Ceci, S. J., Ramey, S. L., & Ramey, C. T. (1990). Framing intellectual assessment in terms of a person-process-context model. Educational Psychologist, 25(3&4), 269-291.
Chabris, Christopher, F. (1998b, August). IQ since "The Bell Curve", Commentary, 106(2), 33-40. Here are his opening two (2) paragraphs: "This past January, Governor Zell Miller of Georgia asked his legislature for enough money to give a cassette or CD of classical music to every newborn child in the state. The governor cited scientific evidence to support this unusual budget request. "There's even a study," he declared in his State of the State address, "that showed that after college students listened to a Mozart piano sonata for ten minutes, their IQ scores increased by nine points." And he added: "Some argue that it didn't last, but no one doubts that listening to music, especially at a very early age, affects the spatial-temporal reasoning that underlies math, engineering, and chess."
The so-called "Mozart effect" is one of the most publicized recent examples of our ongoing preoccupation with intelligence, a subject that not only refuses to go away but continues to raise whirlwinds of controversy. The largest such controversy, of course, surrounds The Bell Curve (1994), by the late Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray. A mountain of essays and books purporting to refute that work and its conclusions grows and grows to this day. But now we also have the magnum opus of Arthur Jensen, a leading figure in IQ research and, like Herrnstein and Murray, a favorite target of academic liberals, as well as a posthumous volume by another leading IQ researcher, Hans Eysenck. So it is a good moment to look again at what we know, what we do not know, and what we think we know about this vexed subject."
Chabris, Christopher, F. et al. (1998a, November). Does IQ Matter? Commentary, 106(5), 13-23. In this critique, a series of intelligence researchers responded to Chabris' s August 1998 original IQ since "The Bell Curve" article.
Following their comments, Chabris begins his replies by stating that he was "gratified by the range of responses that "IQ Since The Bell Curve" stimulated, and I thank everyone who wrote. I am especially pleased with the correspondence that avoids rehashing past debates and instead discusses methods and trends that may characterize the future of intelligence research." The intelligence researchers who responded were:
HOWARD GARDNER
Graduate School of Education
Harvard University
Cambridge, MassachusettsCLAUDE S. FISCHER
Department of Sociology
University of California
Berkeley, CaliforniaJAMES R. FLYNN
University of Otago
Dunedin, New ZealandJACK KAPLAN
Department of Mathematics
Quinnipiac College
Hamden, ConnecticutKELLY P. AMBROSE
Milwaukee, WisconsinJEFF HITTENBERGER
Monterey County, CaliforniaIAN J. DEARY, PETER G. CARYL, and ELIZABETH J. AUSTIN
Department of Psychology
University of Edinburgh
Edinburgh, Scotland, UKCHRISTOPHER BRAND
Edinburgh, Scotland, UKKEVIN KORB
School of Computer Science and Software Engineering
Monash University
Clayton, Victoria, AustraliaFRANCES H. RAUSCHER
Department of Psychology
University of Wisconsin
Oshkosh, WisconsinKENNETH M. STEELE
Department of Psychology
Appalachian State University
Boone, North CarolinaMYRON COPLAN and ROGER D. MASTERS
Intellequity Technology Services
Natick, Massachusetts
Dartmouth College
Hanover, New HampshireRICHARD J. MCNALLY
Department of Psychology
Harvard University
Cambridge, MassachusettsJOHN B. CARROLL
Chapel Hill, North CarolinaIRVING LOUIS HOROWITZ
Transaction Publishers
Rutgers University
Piscataway, New JerseyMACOLM JAMES REE
Department of Psychology
St. Mary's University
San Antonio, TexasNEIL SEEMAN
Toronto, Ontario, CanadaARTHUR R. JENSEN
Professor Emeritus
Educational Psychology
University of California
Berkeley, CaliforniaCHARLES MURRAY
Burkittsville, Maryland
Chapman, Carolyn, (1993). If the Shoe Fits ...: How to Develop Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. Palatine, Illinois: IRI/Skylight Publishing.
Charness, N. (1997). Can acquired knowledge compensate for age-related declines in cognitive efficiency: Evidence from chess and bridge. Manuscript in preparation.
Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A.. (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141-189). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A. (1982). Skill and working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 16, pp. 1-58). New York: Academic Press.
In his summary review of this book chapter, author David Zach Hambrick reviews skill memory theory and relevant findings. He states: "Briefly, a positive effect of experience on memory for domain-specific information has been demonstrated in a wide range of domains. For example, Egan and Schwartz demonstrated the skilled memory effect using diagrams of circuits. Akin showed that architects recall building plans in terms of ordered patterns. Shneiderman showed that expert computer programmers had superior memory for lines of code from a meaningful, but not from a nonsense, FORTRAN computer program. Why are these findings important? After all, it only makes sense that experts would have better memory for domain-specific material than novices."
Chen, Jie-Qi & Garder H. (1997). Alternative assessment from a multiple intelligences theoretical perspective. In Dawn P. Flannagan, Judy, L. Genshaft, & Patti L. Harrison (Eds.). Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 105-121) New York: Guilford Press.)
Cheng, C., Bond, M. H., & Chan, S. C. (1995, February). The perception of ideal best friends by Chinese adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 30(1), 91-108.
Chiu, L. H. (1985). The reliability and validity of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory: Form B. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 45, 945-949.
Chorney, M. J., y, Chorney, K., Seese, N., Owen, M. J., Daniels, J., McGuffin, P., Thompson, L. A., Detterman, D. K., Benbow, C., Lubinski, D., Eley, T., & Plomin, R. (1998, May). A qualitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability in children. Psychological Science, 9(3), 159-166.
[see also * Plomin, Robert & DeFries, John, C. (1998, May). The genetics of cognitive abilities and disabilities. Scientific America. 278(5), 62-69. Here, the studies of twins and adoptees suggest that about half the variations seen in verbal and spatial ability is genetically based. The authors are searching for the genes responsible and for genes involved in such cognitive disabilities as dyslexia. See also Wright, Karen (1998, May). How do cognitive abilities relate to general intelligence? Scientific America. 278(5), 64.
Cicone, M., Wapner, W., & Gardner, H. (1980, March). Sensitivity to emotional expressions and situations in organic patients. Cortex, 16(1), 145-158.
Cicone, M., Gardner, H., & Winner, E. (1981, February). Understanding the psychology in psychological metaphors. Journal of Child Language, 8(1), 213-216.
Clark, Barbara (1997). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at home and at school (5th ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Prentice-Hall.
Cohen, D. Gene. (2005). The Mature Mind: The Positive Power of the Aging Brain, New York: Basic Books.
Here, Cohen sets out a positive scaffold for a relatively new perspective on aging. Cast in the light of four novel stages of psychological development during the later years of life, Cohen conceptualizes the aging process as neither a period involving deterioration of the mind and body nor as a phase of life characterized by an attempt to minimize inevitable decline. Rather, the aging process of older adults is presented as a time for potential new direction involving intellectual development, creative growth, and blossoming social relationships. Drawing on his own personal clinical experience, Cohen discusses a fluid and dynamic approach to the aging process that involves acquisition of advanced forms of thinking and reasoning that can be attained only from years of life experience. Indeed, throughout the text, he shares anecdotal accounts drawn from his personal interactions with family members and patients. On the basis of the findings of his own groundbreaking research, he presents retirement not as a negative concept characterized by boredom and deterioration but as a new phase of life filled with seemingly boundless opportunities for positive growth heretofore unavailable owing to time constraints associated with occupational responsibilities. To sum, in the context of providing a realistic but more optimistic perspective of aging, Cohen presents an excellent overview, in easy-to-read language, of contemporary and important research in the fields of developmental neuroscience. I found this book to be an excellent work which was both informative and enjoyable to read. It is written such that it would be beneficial for both laypersons and health care professionals.
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37-46.
Cole, Mike The Illusion of Culture-free Intelligence Testing
Cole, M., Levitin, K., & Luria, A. L. (2005). The Autobiography of Alexander Luria A Dialogue with The Making of Mind. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Reviewed at (http://www.igs.net/~cmorris/review_the_making_of_mind.htm).
Collier, Christopher Percy. (November 2006). The Expert on Experts: An Expert Guide to Expertise, Fast Company.com, Issue 110, p. 116. In a recent interview, Collier asked Anders Ericsson to respond to the following four ()4) questions:
- Is talent overrated?
- What do you have to do to become the best?
- Can you explain how deliberate practice works?
- So does experience matter?
Collins, James. (1998, October 19). Seven kinds of smarts. Time Magazine, 152(16), pp. 62-64.
Cooley, C. H. (1964). Human nature and the social order. New York: Charles Schribner's Sons. (Original work published 1902)
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
Coopersmith, S. (1975a). Building self-esteem in the classroom. In S. Coopersmith (Ed.), Developing motivation in young children. San Francisco: Alton Publishing.
Coopersmith, S. (1975b). Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory Technical Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Coopersmith, S. (1981b). SEI (Self-Esteem Inventories). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Cox, June & Kelly, Judith (1989, March-April). Nurturing Talent in 2000 A.D. Gifted-Child-Today, 12(2), 2-4 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ 392 116)
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Coyle, Daniel. (2007, March 04). How to grow a super-athlete New York Times Sports Magazine. Section 6, p. 36, Column 1.
"Every talent, according to Ericsson, is the result of a single process: deliberate practice, which he defines as "individuals engaging in a practice activity with full concentration on improving some aspect of their performance. Deliberate practice means working on technique, seeking constant critical feedback and focusing ruthlessly on improving weaknesses."
Crawford, Lyall, An Interpretive Approach to Human Communication Study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304 718)
Critchfield, Thomas, S. (2007). Behavior Analysis and the Best of the Best: A Review of The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, Association for Behavior Analysis International Newsletter, 30(1).
" ... For those interested in a behavior analytic approach to exceptional performance, the Handbook provides an invaluable perspective on how others have explored this topic. It contains detailed descriptions of what expert performers do differently than others, how they acquire their skills, and how these things manifest in a variety of skill domains (including chess, medicine, mathematics, and software design). The most useful, and challenging, chapters for behavior analysts, however, are those that explain the scientific methods that have been used to study expertise."
" ... Would that some guidance existed about how to undertake a systematic investigation of elite human performance! As it happens, a great deal has been written about expertise and methods for studying it, a literature that is nicely summarized in The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (Ericsson, Charness, Feltovich, & Hoffman, 2006). The volume is essential reading for anyone who believes in the capacity of behavior analysis to make a difference in high-level human affairs. To be sure, this is not a behavior-analytic treatise, and challenges exist for those who imagine transporting behavior analysis into domains of peak expertise (more on this shortly). An important point not to be lost in the meantime is that that studies of expertise converge on a perspective that should hearten functional thinkers everywhere."
Cross, K. P. (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facilitating learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Crutcher, R. J., & Ericsson , K. A.. (2000). The role of mediators in memory retrieval as a function of practice: Controlled mediation to direct access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1297-1317.
Crutcher, R. J., Ericsson, K. A., & Wichura, C. A. (1994). Improving the encoding of verbal reports using MPAS: A computer-aided encoding system. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 26(2), 167-171.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. (1990a). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Collins.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990b, Spring). Literacy and intrinsic motivation. Daedalus, 119(2), 115-140.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins.
D
Damon, W. (1977). The nature of social-cognitive change in the developing child. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), The relationship between social and cognitive development. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Darius, Julian (2003, February 18). Against Gardner An essay critiquing his MI theory. To read his complete comments, go here As I do not wish to summarize Darius accurately, I shall quote his directly.
"... Gardner’s theory, largely lacking in evidence and easily deconstructed, has become a staple of educational theory and even our thinking about the nature of the mind and what constitutes “intelligence.” This has little to do with the substance of his work, which at best provides a working but limited taxonomy and a reminder that the brain and the various talents of humanity are separate from any narrow definition of intelligence. Rather, the success of the theory of multiple intelligences has everything to do with its cultural context: a democracy infatuated with the rhetoric of egalitarianism that abhors the hierarchy implicit in the elitism of intelligence, a culture concerned for minorities who continuously perform poorer in evaluations of intelligence, and a culture of increasingly entrenched anti-intellectualism, fanaticism for sports, and relativism of the worst, dumbest sort. The popularity of the theory of multiple intelligences says far more about contemporary American culture than it does about intelligence, of which it says almost nothing.
... This, then, is Gardner’s real agenda. And he has made a prosperous career out of it. Ironically, he has done so through conventional intelligence -- through the old definitions of intelligence that got him his degrees and his job at the (often ridiculously) overly traditional Harvard. Gardner has promulgated his theories through the same old linguistic intelligence that his own theory relegates to the equivalent of throwing balls through hoops. Yet in selling out the academic standards and the definition of intelligence that got him where he is and that labeled him intelligent in the first place, Gardner has purchased in exchange not only his fame but his placement in undergraduate anthologies -- which might compensate him, if not his colleagues, when that lonely compensation of his special status as intelligent in an anti-intellectual society is stripped from him.
Howard Gardner’s popular theory has made him, in his effects if not his intensions, a traitor not only to the academy but some two and a half millennia of learning. Such is the power of a single word, calamitous in its misuse."
The Complete Works of Charles Darwin
"This site contains Darwin's publications, thousands of his private papers, the largest Darwin bibliography and manuscript catalogue and hundreds of supplementary works: biographies, obituaries, reviews, reference works and much more. Almost all is online only here: such as 1st editions of Voyage of the Beagle, Zoology, Descent of Man, all editions of Origin of Species (1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th & 6th); manuscripts & papers: Beagle Diary & field notebooks, Journal, transmutation notebooks and Autobiography. Forthcoming: more editions, translations, introductions & manuscripts."
Das, J. P. (1992, April-June). Beyond a unidimensional scale of merit. Intelligence, 16(2), 137-149.
Davidson, J. E. (1986). The role of insight in giftedness. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp. 201-222). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, J. E. (1990). Intelligence recreated. Educational Psychologist, 25(3&4), 337-354.
Davidson, J. E., & Sternberg, R. J. (1986, Summer). What is insight? Educational Horizons, 177-179.
Davidson, J. E., & Sternberg, R. J. (1984, Spring). The role of insight in intellectual giftedness. Gifted Child Quarterly, 28(2), 58-64.
Davis, L., Foldi, N. S., Gardner, H., & Zurif, E. B. (1978, September). Repetition in the transcortical aphasias. Brain & Language, 6(2), 226-238.
Davis, J., & Gardner, H. (1992). The cognitive revolution: Its consequences for the understanding and education of the young child as artist. In B Reimer & R. A. Smith (Eds.), 1992 yearbook of the national society for the study of education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Davydov, Vasily Vasil'evich (1995, April). The influence of L. S. Vygotsky on education theory, research, and practice. (Stephen T. Kerr, Trans.). Educational Researcher, 24(3), 12-21.
Dawes, R. M. (1994). House of Cards: Psychology and Psychotherapy Built on Myth. New York: Free Press.
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989). Clinical versus actuarial judgment. Science, 243, 1668-1674.
Dawkins, Richard
Dean, Anne, L. (1994, January--February). Instinctual affective forces in the internalization process: Contributions of Hans Loewald [Special Issue] Human Development, 37(1), 42-57.
Dean, A. R. (1998, February 11) Meaning of smartness. New Straits Times.
Deatrick, J. A. & Faux, S. A. (1991). Conducting qualitative studies with children and adolescents. In J. M. Morse (Ed.), Qualitative nursing research: A contemporary dialogue (rev. ed.). (pp. 202-223). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
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Deitel, B. (1990, May 20). The key to education. The Louisville Kentucky Courier-Journal, p. 01H.
Delis, D. C., Wapner, W., Gardner, H., Moses, J. A. (1983, April). The contribution of the right hemisphere to the organization of paragraphs. Cortex, 19(1), 43-50.
Dellarosa, D. (1988). A history of thinking. In R. J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith, (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 1-18). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Demorest, A., Silberstein, L., Gardner, H., & Winner, E. (1983, June). Telling it as it isnít: Children's understanding of figurative language. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1(2), 121-134.
Detterman, Douglas, K. (1979). A job half done: The road to intelligence testing in the year 2000. Intelligence, 3, 295-306.
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Devlin, Bernie University of Pittsburgh. A meta-analysis found that genes account for about 48 percent of the differences in I.Q. scores.
Dixon, J. P. (1983). The spatial child. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.
Dobbs, David. (2006, September 15). How to be a Genius. New Scientist Magazine, 191(2569), pp. 40-43.
"It seems that the facility that we are so fond of calling talent or even genius arises not from innate gifts but from an interplay of fair (but not extraordinary) natural ability, quality instruction, and a mountain of work. This new discipline -- a mix of psychology and cognitive science -- has now produced its first large collection of expert reviews, the 2006 weighty, massive and comprehensive The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. The handbook essentially tells us to forget the notion that genius, talent or any other innate qualities create the greats we call geniuses."
Dubner, Stephen, J. & Levitt, Steven D. (2006, May 07). A Star is Made: Where Does Talent Really Come? New York Times Magazine.
Here, Dubner and Levitt comment that Karl Anders Ericsson and his colleagues gathered all the data they could, not just performance statistics and biographical details but also the results of their own laboratory experiments with high achievers. They studied expert performers in a wide range of pursuits, including soccer, golf, surgery, piano playing, Scrabble, writing, chess, software design, stock picking and darts. Their findings, collected in The Cambridge Ha ndbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, asserted that the characteristic that all of us commonly label as talent is vastly glorified. In other words, expert performers -- whether in memory or surgery, ballet or computer programming -- are nearly always made, not born.
Dunn, K. J., & Dunn, R. S. (1992). Teaching secondary students through their individual learning styles: Practical approaches for grades 7-12. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Treffinger, D. (1992). Bringing out the giftedness in your child: Nurturing every child's strengths, talents, and potential. New York: John Wiley & Sons. New York: Plenum.
Dweck, Carol S. (December 2007 / January 2008). The Secret to Raising Smart Kids. Scientific American MIND, 18(6), 36-43. Throughout eight (8) pages, Dweck suggests that the key to success when raising smart children in school and later on in life is to focus not on their intelligences or abilities but rather on their effort. She begins her article by noting that
"Young people who believe that their intelligence alone will enable them to succeed in school are often discouraged when the going gets tough" (p. 38).
And on the same page, she states:
"Our society worships talent, and many people assume that possessing superior intelligence or ability -- along with confidence in that ability -- is a recipe for success. In fact, however, more than 30 years of scientific investigation suggests that an overemphasis on intellect or talent leaves people vulnerable to failure, fearful of challenges and unwilling to remedy their shortcomings" (pp. 37-38). Throughout the remainder of this informative article, she sketches out some of the conclusions from that research.
To view six (6) of her interviews, go to http://www.iub.edu/~intell/dweck_interview.shtml
Dweck, Carol S. (2002). Beliefs that make smart people dumb. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Why smart people do stupid things (pp. 24-41). New Haven: Yale University Press. In this chapter 2, Carol cites research showing that those who view intelligence as a fixed trait are most vulnerable to underachievement and self-handicapping behavior. She believes that they care more about looking smart than they do about learning and accomplishing something. On November 08, 2005, Brian Martin wrote a comment about this chapter. Here is part of what he stated:
" ... Dweck describes two principal beliefs about intelligence: (1) intelligence is fixed and (2) intelligence is malleable, namely "a potential that can be developed." People who believe that intelligence is malleable are usually better off, because they think that a particular performance -- such as a mark on an assignment or a referee's report -- simply records how well they did at that particular task, and that by working harder they can do better. On the other hand, people who believe intelligence is a fixed trait tend to believe a performance measures their worthiness as a person. This belief actually makes them poorer learners, because they're afraid of failure: "If a valuable learning opportunity contains the risk of errors or requires them to confront a deficiency, they may well sacrifice that opportunity" (p. 31). Furthermore, some people who believe in fixed intelligence will "directly sabotage their accomplishments by withholding effort" in order to save face from failure (p. 32)."
To read the rest of Martin's comment, go to http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/comments/0511malleableint.html
Egan, K., & Gardner, H. (1992, Winter). An exchange: The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. Teachers College Record. 94(2), 397-407.
Eisner, Elliot, W. (1994 06 01, Summer). Commentary: Putting multiple intelligences in context: Some questions and observations. Teachers College Record. 95(4), 555-560.
Ellison, L. (1992, Oct). Using multiple intelligences to set goals. Educational Leadership, 50(2), 69-72.
Evans, C. (1995, December). Access, equity, and intelligence: Another look at tracking. English Journal, 84(8), 63-65.
Ericsson, K. A. (1976). Approaches to descriptions and analyses of problem-solving processes: The 8-puzzle. Reports from the Department of Psychology, the University of Stockholm, Supplement No. 32 (Doctoral dissertation).
Ericsson, K. A.. (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141-189). Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ericsson, K. A. (1985). Memory skill. Canadian Journal of Psychology , 39 (2), 188-231.
Ericsson, K. A. (1988). Concurrent verbal reports on reading and text comprehension. Text , 8 (4), 295-325.
Ericsson, K. A. (1996a). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some of the issues. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 1-50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. In summarizing this book chapter, David Zach Hambrick states:
One of the greatest challenges facing researchers interested in expert performance is the limited access to experts. Experts are rare, particularly if one adopts a definition of expert performance in which the expert is defined as statistical outlier. Nevertheless, in research on expert performance, there are alternatives to laboratory studies. In this chapter, Ericsson describes three complementary alternative approaches.
Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.) (1996b). The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games. Mahweh, NJ: Erlbaum. Summary author David Zach Hambrick comments that:
This book covers skill mastery in a variety of domains (golf, wrestling, chess, music), showing the commonalities that lie at the heart of exceptional, as apposed to average, performance (e.g. consistent, focused practices over years characterized by high quality feedback, the need for the individual to master self-regulation if he or she wants to increase skill over time, etc.). It also provides a cautionary tale, in the form of a golf pro who developed exceptional skill but who never achieved the type of fame or wealth of say a Jack Nicholas. Why? Because skill too narrowly defined, no mater how great, does not lead to achievement. You have to take in the total context (social, political, etc) if you want your "skill" to lead to widespread recognition. At least that's what I took away from my reading. While the book doesn't lay out an explicit "blue print" for applying it's information, it is still a wonderful resource for trainers or teachers looking to develop high level instruction and to mentor those pursuing peak performance.
Ericsson, K. A. (1998). The Scientific Study of Expert Levels of Performance: General Implications for Optimal Learning and Creativity. High Ability Studies, 9(1), 75-100.
Ericsson, K. A. (1999). Creative expertise as superior reproducible performance: Innovative and flexible aspects of expert performance. Psychological Inquiry, 10(4), 329-333.
Ericsson, K. A. (2000a). Expertise in interpreting: An expert-performance perspective. Interpreting, 5(2), 187-220.
Ericsson, K. A. (2000b). How experts attain and maintain superior performance: Implications for the enhancement of skilled performance in older individuals. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 8, 346-352.
Expertise refers to the mechanisms underlying the top-quality accomplishment of an expert, i.e. "one who has acquired special skill in or knowledge of a particular subjects through professional training and practical experience" (Webster's dictionary, 1976, p. 800). The term expert is used to describe highly experienced professionals such as accountants, medical doctors, teachers and scientists, including individuals who attained their superior performance by instruction and extended practice: highly skilled performers in the arts, such as music, painting and writing, sports, such as swimming, running and golf and games, such as bridge and chess.
Ericsson, K. A. (2001a). The path to expert golf performance: Insights from the masters on how to improve performance by deliberate practice. In P. R. Thomas (Ed.), Optimizing performance in golf (pp. 1-57). Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press.
Ericsson, K. A. (2001b). Protocol analysis in psychology. In N. Smelser and P. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 12256-12262). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Ericsson, K. A. (2002a). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In M. Ferrari (Ed.), The pursuit of excellence in education (pp. 21-55). Hillsdale , N.J. : Erlbaum.
Ericsson, K. A. (2002b). Toward a procedure for eliciting verbal expression of nonverbal experience without reactivity: Interpreting the verbal overshadowing effect within the theoretical framework for protocol analysis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 981-987.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003a). The acquisition of expert performance as problem solving: Construction and modification of mediating mechanisms through deliberate practice. In J. E. Davidson and R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Problem solving (pp. 31-83). New York : Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003b). The development of elite performance and deliberate practice: An update from the perspective of the expert-performance approach. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 49-81). Champaign , IL: Human Kinetics.
Ericsson, K. A.. (2003c). Exceptional memorizers: made, not born. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(6), 233-235.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003d). How the expert-performance approach differs from traditional approaches to expertise in sports: In search of a shared theoretical framework for studying expert performance. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 371-401). Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003e). The search for general abilities and basic capacities: Theoretical implications from the modifiability and complexity of mechanisms mediating expert performance. In R. J. Sternberg and E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspectives on the psychology of abilities, competencies, and expertise (pp. 93-125). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A. (2003f). Valid and non-reactive verbalization of thoughts during performance of tasks: Toward a solution to the central problems of introspection as a source of scientific data. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 10(9-10), 1-18 .
Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains. Academic Medicine, 10, S1-S12.
Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994, August).
Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725-747.Ericsson, K. Anders, & Charness, N. (1995, September). Abilities: Evidence for talent or characteristics acquired through engagement in relevant activities? American Psychologist, 50(9), 803-804.
Ericsson, K. A. & Charness, N. (1997). Cognitive and developmental factors in expert performance. In P. J. Feltovich, K. M. Ford, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context: Human and machine (pp 3-41). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J ., & Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.) (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Throughout this tome, the editors and chapter authors argue that the so-called genetic characteristic that we commonly call talent is vastly overestimated. Or, expert performers -- whether in memory, surgery, ballet or computer programming -- are nearly always made ... not born. To read my review of this huge handbook, click on the book's front cover image, to your right.
Ericsson, K. A., & Chase, W. G.. (1982). Exceptional memory. American Scientist, 70, 607-615.
Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208, 1181-1182.
Ericsson, K. A., & Crutcher, R. J.. (1991). Introspection and verbal reports on cognitive processes - two approaches to the study of thought processes: A response to Howe. New Ideas in Psychology, 9, 57-71.
Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F.. (1998). Working memory and expert performance. In R. H. Logie and K. J. Gilhooly (Eds.), Working Memory and Thinking (pp. 93-114). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F.. (1999). Long-term working memory as an alternative to capacity models of working memory in everyday skilled performance. In A. Miyake and P. Shah (Eds.), Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control (pp. 257-297), Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R.. (2004). Uncovering the structure of a memorist's superior “basic” memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W.. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102(2), 211-245. In reviewing this article, summary author David Zach Hambrick writes:
The sine qua non of skilled cognitive performance is the ability to access large amounts of domain specific information. For example, it is estimated that chess masters have access to as many as 100,000 familiar configurations of chess pieces (Chase & Simon, 1973). As another example, in order to make sense of what he or she is reading, a reader must have access to information gained from previously read text. This is particularly true when reading complex technical material filled with jargon.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W.. (2000). Shortcomings of generic retrieval structures with slots of the type that Gobet (1993) proposed and modeled. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 571-588.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993).
The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance Psychological Review, 100, 363-406. To see a greater summary of this article, go here.In his summary review of this same article, David Zach Hambrick comments: This study was one of the first and arguably the most influential contributions to the expertise literature that defines and provides a detailed theoretical account of a key component of skill acquisition (deliberate practice) and assesses its contribution over the lifespan in the context of a complex and ecologically valid cognitive skill, the high-level performance of a musical instrument. The demonstration of a close relationship between achievement level and cumulated hours of deliberate practice is one of the most important and compelling contributions to the debate about the explanation of "talent" that has been published this century.
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C.. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
In a summary review of this journal article, David Zach Hambrick comments that: "The focus of this paper is the adaptability of human behavior to environmental demands. A major assumption of the talent view of expert performance is that while practice is necessary, asymptotic performance levels are constrained by stable, invariant constraints. By contrast, Ericsson and Lehmann assert that "The belief that most anatomical and physiological characteristics are unmodifiable and thus reflect innate talent is not valid for expert performance acquired through at least a decade of intense practice" (p. 279). The cite evidence from studies of expert performers (e.g., ballet dancers) showing that adaptations--for example, to the musculature--are the result of very specific types of stimulation. In addition, there is evidence showing no differences between experts and novices on general measures of cognitive and perceptual functioning. To illustrate, the correlation between IQ and domain-specific performance decreases with continued practice. (However, what does an initially stronger correlation suggest? One possibility is that general factors play a role early -- as Fleishman and Ackerman have proposed."
Ericsson, K. A., Nadogapal, K., & Roring, R. W. (Spring, 2005). Giftedness from the expert-performance perspective. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28(3/4), 287-311. Here, the authors argue that individuals appear to have developed their expertise gradually. For example, by early adulthood gifted musicians had, by virtue of starting earlier and / or practicing more, accumulated up to twice as much deliberate practice as highly skilled, but not exceptional, peers.
Ericsson, K. A., & Oliver, W., L.. (1988). Methodology for laboratory research on thinking: Task selection, collection of observations, and data analysis. In R. J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 392 - 428). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., Patel, V. L., & Kintsch, W. (2000). How experts' adaptations to representative task demands account for the expertise effect in memory recall: Comment on Vicente and Wang (1998). Psychological Review, 107, 578-592.
Ericsson, K. A., & Polson, P. G. (1988). An experimental analysis of the mechanisms of a memory skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 14, 305-316.
Ericsson, K. A., Prietula, M. J., & Cokely, E. T. (2007, July/August). The making of an expert. Harvard Business Review, Volume 85(7/8), 5, 114-121.
For eight (8) pages, they challenges the conventional conviction that expertise and genius are synonymous with societal success. They mention how they studied data on the behavior of experts gathered by more than 100 scientists, continuously wrestling with the popular lore that geniuses are born and not made. They discuss scientific research that showed that experts are developed through years of dedicated practice and coaching, not simply born into their expertise. According to their findings, leaders can improve abilities through deliberate practice, feedback, and inner coaching. Regular practice is not sufficient alone to become an expert. Instead, to reach the highest levels in your field, they argue that you must reach to expand your abilities that are outside your comfort zone and you must do this in a continuous and disciplined manner. They state that becoming an expert is a long road (at least a decade) and requires guidance.At the outset, these authors state: "[N]ew research shows that outstanding performance is the product of years of deliberate practice and coaching, not of any innate talent or skill" (p. 115).
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A.. (1980, May). Verbal reports as data, Psychological review, 87(3), 215-251.
This paper justified the use of verbal (think-aloud) protocols as a reasonable method to investigate cognitive processes